Timeline of Amendments

Empowered the State to make special provisions for socially/educationally backward classes; added the Ninth Schedule to shield land-reform laws from judicial review.

Reorganised States on a linguistic basis; abolished the four-fold classification (Part A/B/C/D) and created 14 States and 6 Union Territories.

Affirmed Parliament's power to amend any part of the Constitution, including Fundamental Rights, by amending Articles 13 and 368.

Wide-ranging changes during the Emergency: added 'Socialist', 'Secular' and 'Integrity' to the Preamble; introduced Fundamental Duties (Article 51A); curtailed judicial review; extended Lok Sabha term.

Reversed several 42nd Amendment excesses: restored judicial review, removed Right to Property from Fundamental Rights (moved to Article 300A), and tightened Emergency proclamation requirements.

Introduced the Tenth Schedule providing for disqualification of legislators on grounds of defection from their political party.

Reduced the voting age from 21 to 18 years, dramatically expanding the electorate.

Constitutionalised rural local self-government by adding Part IX and the Eleventh Schedule; mandated regular elections, reservation for women and SC/ST.

Constitutionalised urban local self-government by adding Part IX-A and the Twelfth Schedule for Municipalities.

Made education a Fundamental Right for children aged 6–14 (Article 21A), enabling the Right to Education Act, 2009.

Capped the size of Council of Ministers at 15% of the House and strengthened the anti-defection law.

Recognised the right to form co-operative societies as a Fundamental Right and added Part IX-B on Co-operative Societies.

Introduced the Goods and Services Tax — a unified indirect tax across the Union and the States — and created the GST Council.

Granted constitutional status to the National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC).

Provided 10% reservation in education and public employment for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) of citizens.

Restored the power of States to identify and specify Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBCs).

Reserved one-third of seats for women in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies (subject to delimitation exercise).